Beyond 'Definitional Anarchy': A Latent Class Analysis of Institutional Definitions of Community Engagement
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Published:
2026-10-31
Keywords:
community engagement, latent class analysis, institutional definitions, institutional theory
Main Article Content
Abstract
The Carnegie Foundation’s Elective Classification for Community Engagement was first awarded in 2006. As of the 2024 cycle, 368 institutions held the classification. At the time of this research, the American Council on Education (ACE) hosted the Carnegie Elective Classifications. We used latent class analysis to create a typology of four definitions with varying levels of emphasis placed on values like collaboration, mutual benefit and connections to scholarship. The resultant typology offers a framework for understanding how institutions communicate their values related to community engagement. Our findings provide opportunities for practical guidance and reflective opportunities for leaders seeking to institutionalise community engagement.
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Section
Research articles (Refereed)
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Birch, E., Perry, D. C., & Taylor, Jr., H. L. (2013). Universities as Anchor Institutions. Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement, 17(3), Article 3.
Boyer, E. L. (1990). Scholarship reconsidered: Priorities of the professoriate. Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching.
Boyer, E. L. (1996). The scholarship of engagement. Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement, 1(1), 11–20.
Bringle, R. C., Clayton, P., & Price, M. (2009). Partnerships in service learning and civic engagement. Partnerships: A Journal of Service-Learning and Civic Engagement, 1(1), Article 1.
Clayton, P. H., Camo-Biogradlija, J., Kniffin, L. E., Price, M. F., Bringle, R. G., & Pier, A. A. (2022). The Transformational Relationship Evaluation Scale II (TRES II) Reflection Framework: Version 2. IUPUI ScholarWorks. https://doi.org/10.7912/zy6w-xj66
Collins, L. M., & Lanza, S. T. (2010). Latent class and latent transition analysis. Wiley & Sons.
Davis, K. L., Kliewer, B. W., & Nicolaides, A. (2017). Power and reciprocity in partnerships: Deliberative civic engagement and transformative learning in community-engaged scholarship. Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement, 21(1), Article 1.
Dewey, J. (1938). Experience & education. Simon and Schuster.
Doberneck, D. M., Glass, C. R., & Schweitzer, J. (2010). From rhetoric to reality: A typology of publically engaged scholarship. Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement, 14(4), 5–35.
Dostilio, L. D. (Ed.). (2017). The community engagement professional in higher education: A competency model for an emerging field. Stylus Publishing, LLC. https://campuscompact.presswarehouse.com/browse/book/9781945459030/The-Community-Engagement-Professional-in-Higher-Education
Driscoll, A. (2008). Carnegie’s Community-Engagement Classification: Intentions and insights. Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning, 40(1), 38–41. https://doi.org/10.3200/CHNG.40.1.38-41
Driscoll, A. (2009). Carnegie’s new community engagement classification: Affirming higher education’s role in community. New Directions for Higher Education, 2009(147), 5–12. https://doi.org/10.1002/he.353
Enos, S., & Morton, K. (2003). Developing a theory and practice of campus community partnerships. In B. Jacoby (Ed.), Building partnerships for service-learning (1st ed, pp. 20–41). Jossey-Bass.
Farner, K. (2019). Institutionalizing community engagement in higher education: A case study of processes toward engagement. Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement, 23(2), Article 2.
Fitzgerald, H. E., Bruns, K., Sonka, S. T., Furco, A., & Swanson, L. (2012). The centrality of engagement in higher education. Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement, 16(3), Article 3.
Furco, A., Weerts, D., Burton, L., & Kent, K. (2009). Assessment rubric for institutionalizing community engagement in higher education. https://hdl.handle.net/11299/213717
Gasman, M. (2009, October 11). Minority-serving colleges deserve more respect. The Chronicle of Higher Education. https://www.chronicle.com/article/minority-serving-colleges-deserve-more-respect/
Gavazzi, S. M., & Gee, E. G. (2018). Land-grant universities for the future: Higher education for the public good. Johns Hopkins University Press.
Gelmon, S. B., Holland, B., & Spring, A. (2018). Assessing service-learning and civic engagement: Principles and techniques. Campus Compact.
Giles, D. E. (2008). Understanding an emerging field of scholarship: Toward a research agenda for engaged, public scholarship. Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement, 12(2), Article 1.
Himmelman, A. T. (2001). On coalitions and the transformation of power relations: Collaborative betterment and collaborative empowerment. American Journal of Community Psychology, 29(2), 277–284. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010334831330
Hoeveler, J. D. (1976). The university and the social gospel: The intellectual origins of the “Wisconsin Idea.” The Wisconsin Magazine of History, 59(4), 282–298.
Holland, B. (1997). Analyzing institutional commitment to service: A model of key organizational factors. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 4, 30–41.
Hotaling, L., Lichtenwalner, C. S., McDonnell, J. D., O’Connell, K., & Ferraro, C. (2024). The ARIS Broader Impacts Toolkit: An online guide to support Broader Impact project development and evaluation for researchers and BI professionals. Journal of Community Engagement and Scholarship, 17(2). https://doi.org/10.54656/jces.v17i2.644
Hungerford, T., & Solon, G. (1987). Sheepskin effects in the returns to education. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 69(1), 175. https://doi.org/10.2307/1937919
Janke, E., Jenkins, I., Quan, M., & Saltmarsh, J. (2023). We’re talking about process: The primacy of relationship and epistemology in defining community-engaged scholarship in promotion and tenure policy. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 29(1). https://doi.org/10.3998/mjcsl.2734
Janke, E., Quan, M., Jenkins, I., & Saltmarsh, J. (2023). Persistence and proliferation: Integrating community-engaged scholarship language into 59 departments, seven units, and one university’s academic promotion and tenure policies. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 29(1). https://doi.org/10.3998/mjcsl.2537
Key, K. D., Furr-Holden, D., Lewis, E. Y., Cunningham, R., Zimmerman, M. A., Johnson-Lawrence, V., & Selig, S. (2019). The continuum of community engagement in research: A roadmap for understanding and assessing progress. Progress in Community Health Partnerships: Research, Education, and Action, 13(4), 427–434. https://doi.org/10.1353/cpr.2019.0064
Kniffin, L., Camo-Biogradlija, J., Price, M. F., Kohl, E., Dickovick, A. D. C., Williams, J., Goodwin, J., Johnson, K. V., Clayton, P. H., & Bringle, R. G. (2020). Relationships and partnerships in community–campus engagement: Evolving inquiry and practice. International Journal of Research on Service-Learning and Community Engagement, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.37333/001c.18586
Kowalkowski, B., Lloyd Frieson, J., & Phillips, J. L. (2022). Community engagement at Tribal Land-Grant Institutions: A Tribal approach to reimagining the university-community relationship. Journal of Community Engagement and Scholarship, 14(3). https://doi.org/10.54656/jces.v14i3.49
Linzer, D. A., & Lewis, J. B. (2011). poLCA: An R package for polytomous variable latent class analysis. Journal of Statistical Software, 42(10), 1–29. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v042.i10
McLean, J. E., & Behringer, B. A. (2008). Establishing and evaluating equitable partnerships. Journal of Community Engagement and Scholarship, 1(1), 66–67. https://doi.org/10.54656/NYQP1665
Morphew, C. C., & Hartley, M. (2006). Mission statements: A thematic analysis of rhetoric across institutional type. The Journal of Higher Education, 77(3), 456–471. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221546.2006.11778934
O’Meara, K. (2011). Inside the panopticon: Studying academic reward systems. In J. C. Smart & M. B. Paulsen (Eds.), Higher Education: Handbook of Theory and Research (Vol. 26, pp. 161–220). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-0702-3_5
O’Meara, K., Lounder, A., & Hodges, A. (2013). University leaders’ use of episodic power to support faculty community engagement. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 19(2), 5–20.
Pearl, A., & Christensen, R. K. (2017a). First-year student motivations for service-learning: An application of the volunteer functions inventory. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 23(2), 66–82.
Pearl, A., & Christensen, R. K. (2017b). First-year student motivations for service-learning: An exploratory investigation of minority student perceptions. Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement, 21(4), 117–137.
Pearl, A., Jones-Friedrichs, C., Ward, E., Cunningham, H. C., Azordegan, J. M., Cruz, T., Deas, F., Locke, E., Mitchell, T. D., Padalkar, T., Quito, D., & White, C. C. (in review). The Carnegie Elective Classification: A methodological guide for community engagement research. International Journal of Research on Service-Learning and Community Engagement.
Pearl, A., Ward, E., Janke, E., Rios, M., & Eatman, T. K. (in review). Recognizing the value of community-engaged scholarship in institutional policies and practices. Journal of Participatory Research Methods.
Post, M. A., Ward, E., Longo, N. V., & Saltmarsh, J. A. (Eds.). (2016). Publicly engaged scholars: Next generation engagement and the future of higher education (First edition). Stylus Publishing LLC.
Quito, D., Locke, E., Cunningham, H. R., & Pearl, A. (in review). Signaling critical community engagement: Exploring definitions from the 2020 and 2024 Carnegie Classification data. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning.
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