‘What better excuse for a real adventure’: History, Memory and Tourism on the Kokoda Track
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Published:
Oct 4, 2013
Keywords:
Kokoda Track, National Identity, Collective Memory, Battlefield Tourism, Pilgrimage
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Abstract
Rapidly growing numbers of Australian tourists visiting overseas battle sites associated with Australian military history have been met with enthusiastic academic interest by historians, yet the vast majority of studies focus on Gallipoli, rather than the Kokoda Track. Prior to 2001, few tourists had undertaken a journey along the narrow jungle pathway, which winds 96km through the Owen Stanley Ranges in Papua New Guinea. Just over a decade later, the track supports a competitive tourism industry, dominated by Australian companies, and attracts thousands of trekkers each year. This paper applies an interdisciplinary methodology to better understand the duality of locations of battlefield tourism as sites of commemoration and, unavoidably, sites of commerce. A survey of 107 trekkers suggests that, in addition to an expression of national identity, the mythology associated with the Kokoda Track has been appropriated by Australian tourists to represent individualistic goals of personal development and transformation: meanings that originate from the site’s history but extend beyond it.
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References
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Coleman, S. & Elsner, J. 1995. Pilgrimage, Cambridge, Harvard University Press.
Collins-Kriener, N. 2010. The Geography of Pilgrimage and Tourism: Transformations and Implications for Applied Geography. Applied Geography, 30, 153-63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2009.02.001
Connerton, P. 1989. How Societies Remember, London, Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511628061
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GHANDOR, R. 2007. Cronulla to Kokoda: An Aussie Sense of belonging. The West Australian, 6 July.
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GRABURN, N. 1989. Tourism: The Sacred Journey. In: SMITH, V. (ed.) Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology of Tourism. Philadelphia: University of Philadelphia Press. https://doi.org/10.9783/9780812208016.19
Henderson, K. 1996. One Size Doesn't Fit All: The Meanings of Women's Leisure. Journal of Leisure Research, 28, 139-54.
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HYDE, K. F. & HARMAN, S. 2011. Motives For a Secular Pilgrimage to the Gallipoli Battlefields. Tourism Management, 1, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2011.01.008
Iles, J. 2008. Encounters in the Fields – Tourism to the Battlefields of the Western Front. Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change, 6, 138-54. https://doi.org/10.1080/14766820802376299
Inglis, K. 1965. The Anzac Tradition. Meanjin Quarterly, 24, 25-44.
INGLIS, K. 1970. The Australians at Gallipoli. Historical Studies, 14. https://doi.org/10.1080/10314617008595420
Inglis, K. 1991. Gallipoli Pilgrimage 1965. Journal of the Australian War Memorial, 18, 20.
Inglis, K. 1998. Return to Gallipoli. In: Lack, J. (ed.) Anzac Remembered: Selected Rememberings of K.S. Inglis. Melbourne: University of Melbourne.
Inglis, K. 2008. Sacred Places: War Memorials in the Australian Landscape, Melbourne, Victoria, University Publishing.
Kerstetter, D., Confer, J. & Graefe, A. 2001. An Exploration of the Specialisation Concept Within the Context of Heritage Tourism. Journal of Travel Research, 39, 269. https://doi.org/10.1177/004728750103900304
Lake, M. 1992. Mission Impossible: How Men Gave Birth to the Australian Nation – Nationalism, Gender and Other Seminal Acts. Gender and History, 4, 310. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0424.1992.tb00152.x
Lake, M. & Demousi, J. 1995. Gender and War: Australians at War in the Twentieth Century, Melbourne, Cambridge University Press.
Leed, E. J. 1991. The Mind of the Traveler: From Gilgamesh to Global Tourism, New York, Basic Books.
Lindsay, P. 2005. The Spirit of Kokoda: Then and Now, Victoria, Hardie Grant Books.
Lloyd, G. 1986. Selfhood, War and Masculinity. In: Pateman, C. & Gross, E. (eds.) Feminist Challenges: Social and Political Theory. Sydney: Allen and Unwin.
Lofton, K. 2006. Practicing Oprah; or, the Prescriptive Compulsion of a Spiritual Capitalism. Journal of Popular Culture, 39, 599. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5931.2006.00281.x
Lowenthal, D. 1996. The Heritage Crusade and the Spoils of History, London, Viking.
Lowenthal, D. 1998. Fabricating Heritage. History and Memory, 10, 13.
LYNN, C. 15 February 2006. Kokoda – a neglected jungle shrine. Adventure Kokoda Blog [Online]. Available from: http://blog.kokodatreks.com/2006/02/15/kokoda-a-neglected-jungleshrine/#more-474 [Accessed 25 March 2011].
Margy, P. 2008. Secular Pilgrimage: A Contradiction in Terms? In: Margy, P. J. (ed.) Shrines and Pilgrimage in the Modern World: New Itineraries Into The Sacred. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. https://doi.org/10.5117/9789089640116
Mcquilton, J. 2005. Gallipoli as Contested Commemorative Space. In: Macleod, J. (ed.) Gallipoli: Making History. London: Frank Cass.
Nelson, H. 1997. Gallipoli, Kokoda and the Making of National Identity. Journal of Australian Studies, 21, 157-69. https://doi.org/10.1080/14443059709387325
Nelson, H. 2003. Kokoda: The Track from History to Politics. The Journal of Pacific History, 38, 109-27. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223340306070
Nelson, H. 2010. Kokoda: Pushing the Popular Image. The Journal of Pacific History, 45, 89-104. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223344.2010.484173
OZORAK, E. W. 2006. The View from the Edge: Pilgrimage and Transformation. In: W. SWATOS, J. (ed.) On the Road to Being There: Studies in Pilgrimage and Tourism in Late Modernity. Leiden: Brill.
Powell, A. 2003. The Third Force: ANGAUs New Guinea War 1942-46, Sydney, OUP Australia.
QUEKETT, M. 2009. Kokoda walk hard yakka, but uplifting. The West Australian [Online]. Available: http://au.news.yahoo.com/thewest/travel/a/-/travel/6207777/kokoda-walk-hard-yakka-but-uplifting/ [Accessed 20 April 2011].
Reed, L. 1999. Part of Our Own Story: Representations of Indigenous Australians and Papua New Guineans within Australia Remembers 1945-1995 – The Continuing Desire for a Homogenous National Identity. Oceania, 69, 157-69. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1834-4461.1999.tb02710.x
Reed, L. 2004. Bigger than Gallipoli: War, History and Memory in Australia, Perth, University of Western Australia Press.
RETURNED AND SERVICES LEAGUE OF AUSTRALIA WA BRANCH INCORPORATED. The Anzac Spirit [Online]. Available: http://www.rslwahq.org.au/commemoration/ANZAC-Day/anzac-spirit.aspx [Accessed 23 January 2013].
Reynolds, H. & Lake, M. (eds.) 2010. What's Wrong With Anzac? The Militarisation of Australian History, Sydney: New South Wales Press.
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Scates, B. 2002. In Gallipoli's Shadow: Pilgrimage, Memory, Mourning and the Great War. Australian Historical Studies, 33, 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1080/10314610208596198
Scates, B. 2006. Return to Gallipoli: Walking the Battlefields of the Great War, New York, Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511481338
Scates, B. & ET AL 2012. Anzac Day at Home and Abroad: Towards a History of Australia's National Day. History Compass, 10, 528. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2012.00862.x
Seal, G. 2004. Inventing Anzac: The Digger and National Mythology, St Lucia, University of Queensland Press.
SEAL, G. 2009. Anzac: The Sacred in the Secular. In: PARANJAPE, M. (ed.) Sacred Australia: Post-secular Considerations. Melbourne: Clouds of Magellan.
Shute, C. 1975. Heroines and Heroes: Sexual Mythology in Australia 1914-1918. Hecate, 1, 7.
Smith, V. L. 1992. The Quest in Guest, Annals of Tourism Research. 19, 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1016/0160-7383(92)90103-V
Stanley, P. 2008. Invading Australia: Japan and the battle for Australia, Camberwell, Viking.
Swarbrooke, J. & Beard, C. 2006. Adventure Tourism: The New Frontier, Oxford, Butterworth-Heinemann.
Veal, A. 2006. Research Methods for Leisure and Tourism: A Practical Guide, England, Pearson Education.
Ward, S. & Mckenna, M. 2007. It Was Really Moving Mate Gallipoli Pilgrimage and Sentimental Nationalism in Australia. Australian Historical Studies, 38, 141-51. https://doi.org/10.1080/10314610708601236
Watson, D. 2002. Recollections of a Bleeding Heart: A Portrait of Paul Keating PM, Sydney, Random House.
Weiss-Ozorak, E. 2006. The View from the Edge: Pilgrimage and Transformation. In: Jr, W. H. S. (ed.) On the Road to Being There: Studies in Pilgrimage and Tourism in Late Modernity. Boston: Brill Publishing.
West, B. 2008. Enchanting Pasts: The Role of International Civil Religious Pilgrimage in Reimagining National Collective Memory. Sociological Theory, 26, 258-70. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9558.2008.00328.x
White, R. 1981. Inventing Australia: Images and Identity 1688-1980, Sydney, George Allen & Unwin.
Wilson, E. & Little, D. E. 2008. The Solo Female Travel Experience: Exploring the Geography of Women's Fear. Current Issues in Tourism, 11, 167-86. https://doi.org/10.2167/cit342.0
Winter, C. 2011. Battlefield tourism and Australian national identity: Gallipoli and the Western Front. In: Frew, E. & White, L. (eds.) Tourism and National Identity. Hobroken: Taylor and Francis.
Winter, J. 2006. Remembering War: The Great War Between Memory and History in the Twentieth Century, Michigan, Yale University Press.
Ziino, B. 2006. Who Owns Gallipoli? Australia's Gallipoli Anxieties 1915-2005. Journal of Australian Studies, 30, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1080/14443050609388071
Arrow, M. 2011. The Making History initiative and Australian popular history. Rethinking History: The Journal of Theory and Practice, 15, 153-74. https://doi.org/10.1080/13642529.2011.564810
Ashton, P. & Hamilton, P. 2010. History at the Crossroads: Australian and the Past, Sydney, Hlastead Press.
Bauman, Z. 1996. From Pilgrim to Tourist – or a Short History of Identity. In: Hall, S. & Gay, P. D. (eds.) Questions of Cultural Identity. California: Sage.
Butler, K. 1995. Independence for Western Women Through Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 22, 487-89. https://doi.org/10.1016/0160-7383(94)00101-4
Clark, A. 2008. History's Children: History Wars in the Classroom, Sydney, UNSW Press.
Clark, A. 2010. Politicians Using History. Australian Journal of Politics and History, 56, 120-31. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8497.2010.01545.x
Clark, M. 1981. A Short History of Australia, London, Heinemann.
Coleman, S. 2002. Do you Believe in Pilgrimage? Anthropological Theory, 2, 355-68. https://doi.org/10.1177/1463499602002003805
Coleman, S. & Elsner, J. 1995. Pilgrimage, Cambridge, Harvard University Press.
Collins-Kriener, N. 2010. The Geography of Pilgrimage and Tourism: Transformations and Implications for Applied Geography. Applied Geography, 30, 153-63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2009.02.001
Connerton, P. 1989. How Societies Remember, London, Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511628061
FORBES, M. 2002. Kokoda: A battle that offered hope. The Age [Online]. Available: http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2002/08/14/1029113955945.html [Accessed 15 September 2010].
GHANDOR, R. 2007. Cronulla to Kokoda: An Aussie Sense of belonging. The West Australian, 6 July.
GIBSON, R. 2010. Kokoda trek's become the new Bali. Courier-Mail [Online]. Available: http://www.couriermail.com.au/news/kokoda-treksbecome-the-new-bali/story-fn5hj8hz-1225914693120 [Accessed 20 April 2011].
GRABOWSKI, S. 2007. Ecotrekking: A viable development alternative for the Kokoda Track? Bachelor of Management (Honours) in Tourism thesis, University of Technology.
GRABURN, N. 1989. Tourism: The Sacred Journey. In: SMITH, V. (ed.) Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology of Tourism. Philadelphia: University of Philadelphia Press. https://doi.org/10.9783/9780812208016.19
Henderson, K. 1996. One Size Doesn't Fit All: The Meanings of Women's Leisure. Journal of Leisure Research, 28, 139-54.
HISTORICAL, K. PNG Led Treks [Online]. Available: http://www.kokodahistorical.com.au/index/index.php/tours/png-led-tours [Accessed 24 September 2012].
HORIN, A. 2004. A Walk on the Wild Side. Sydney Morning Herald [Online]. Available: http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2004/11/05/1099547386308.html?from=storylh [Accessed 6 August 2011].
HYDE, K. F. & HARMAN, S. 2011. Motives For a Secular Pilgrimage to the Gallipoli Battlefields. Tourism Management, 1, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2011.01.008
Iles, J. 2008. Encounters in the Fields – Tourism to the Battlefields of the Western Front. Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change, 6, 138-54. https://doi.org/10.1080/14766820802376299
Inglis, K. 1965. The Anzac Tradition. Meanjin Quarterly, 24, 25-44.
INGLIS, K. 1970. The Australians at Gallipoli. Historical Studies, 14. https://doi.org/10.1080/10314617008595420
Inglis, K. 1991. Gallipoli Pilgrimage 1965. Journal of the Australian War Memorial, 18, 20.
Inglis, K. 1998. Return to Gallipoli. In: Lack, J. (ed.) Anzac Remembered: Selected Rememberings of K.S. Inglis. Melbourne: University of Melbourne.
Inglis, K. 2008. Sacred Places: War Memorials in the Australian Landscape, Melbourne, Victoria, University Publishing.
Kerstetter, D., Confer, J. & Graefe, A. 2001. An Exploration of the Specialisation Concept Within the Context of Heritage Tourism. Journal of Travel Research, 39, 269. https://doi.org/10.1177/004728750103900304
Lake, M. 1992. Mission Impossible: How Men Gave Birth to the Australian Nation – Nationalism, Gender and Other Seminal Acts. Gender and History, 4, 310. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0424.1992.tb00152.x
Lake, M. & Demousi, J. 1995. Gender and War: Australians at War in the Twentieth Century, Melbourne, Cambridge University Press.
Leed, E. J. 1991. The Mind of the Traveler: From Gilgamesh to Global Tourism, New York, Basic Books.
Lindsay, P. 2005. The Spirit of Kokoda: Then and Now, Victoria, Hardie Grant Books.
Lloyd, G. 1986. Selfhood, War and Masculinity. In: Pateman, C. & Gross, E. (eds.) Feminist Challenges: Social and Political Theory. Sydney: Allen and Unwin.
Lofton, K. 2006. Practicing Oprah; or, the Prescriptive Compulsion of a Spiritual Capitalism. Journal of Popular Culture, 39, 599. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5931.2006.00281.x
Lowenthal, D. 1996. The Heritage Crusade and the Spoils of History, London, Viking.
Lowenthal, D. 1998. Fabricating Heritage. History and Memory, 10, 13.
LYNN, C. 15 February 2006. Kokoda – a neglected jungle shrine. Adventure Kokoda Blog [Online]. Available from: http://blog.kokodatreks.com/2006/02/15/kokoda-a-neglected-jungleshrine/#more-474 [Accessed 25 March 2011].
Margy, P. 2008. Secular Pilgrimage: A Contradiction in Terms? In: Margy, P. J. (ed.) Shrines and Pilgrimage in the Modern World: New Itineraries Into The Sacred. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. https://doi.org/10.5117/9789089640116
Mcquilton, J. 2005. Gallipoli as Contested Commemorative Space. In: Macleod, J. (ed.) Gallipoli: Making History. London: Frank Cass.
Nelson, H. 1997. Gallipoli, Kokoda and the Making of National Identity. Journal of Australian Studies, 21, 157-69. https://doi.org/10.1080/14443059709387325
Nelson, H. 2003. Kokoda: The Track from History to Politics. The Journal of Pacific History, 38, 109-27. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223340306070
Nelson, H. 2010. Kokoda: Pushing the Popular Image. The Journal of Pacific History, 45, 89-104. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223344.2010.484173
OZORAK, E. W. 2006. The View from the Edge: Pilgrimage and Transformation. In: W. SWATOS, J. (ed.) On the Road to Being There: Studies in Pilgrimage and Tourism in Late Modernity. Leiden: Brill.
Powell, A. 2003. The Third Force: ANGAUs New Guinea War 1942-46, Sydney, OUP Australia.
QUEKETT, M. 2009. Kokoda walk hard yakka, but uplifting. The West Australian [Online]. Available: http://au.news.yahoo.com/thewest/travel/a/-/travel/6207777/kokoda-walk-hard-yakka-but-uplifting/ [Accessed 20 April 2011].
Reed, L. 1999. Part of Our Own Story: Representations of Indigenous Australians and Papua New Guineans within Australia Remembers 1945-1995 – The Continuing Desire for a Homogenous National Identity. Oceania, 69, 157-69. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1834-4461.1999.tb02710.x
Reed, L. 2004. Bigger than Gallipoli: War, History and Memory in Australia, Perth, University of Western Australia Press.
RETURNED AND SERVICES LEAGUE OF AUSTRALIA WA BRANCH INCORPORATED. The Anzac Spirit [Online]. Available: http://www.rslwahq.org.au/commemoration/ANZAC-Day/anzac-spirit.aspx [Accessed 23 January 2013].
Reynolds, H. & Lake, M. (eds.) 2010. What's Wrong With Anzac? The Militarisation of Australian History, Sydney: New South Wales Press.
SALUSINSZKY, I. 2008. Keating rejects Gallipoli identity. The Australian [Online]. Available: http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/arts/keating-rejects-gallipoliidentity/story-e6frg8nf-1111117906152 [Accessed 20 January 2011].
Scates, B. 2002. In Gallipoli's Shadow: Pilgrimage, Memory, Mourning and the Great War. Australian Historical Studies, 33, 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1080/10314610208596198
Scates, B. 2006. Return to Gallipoli: Walking the Battlefields of the Great War, New York, Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511481338
Scates, B. & ET AL 2012. Anzac Day at Home and Abroad: Towards a History of Australia's National Day. History Compass, 10, 528. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2012.00862.x
Seal, G. 2004. Inventing Anzac: The Digger and National Mythology, St Lucia, University of Queensland Press.
SEAL, G. 2009. Anzac: The Sacred in the Secular. In: PARANJAPE, M. (ed.) Sacred Australia: Post-secular Considerations. Melbourne: Clouds of Magellan.
Shute, C. 1975. Heroines and Heroes: Sexual Mythology in Australia 1914-1918. Hecate, 1, 7.
Smith, V. L. 1992. The Quest in Guest, Annals of Tourism Research. 19, 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1016/0160-7383(92)90103-V
Stanley, P. 2008. Invading Australia: Japan and the battle for Australia, Camberwell, Viking.
Swarbrooke, J. & Beard, C. 2006. Adventure Tourism: The New Frontier, Oxford, Butterworth-Heinemann.
Veal, A. 2006. Research Methods for Leisure and Tourism: A Practical Guide, England, Pearson Education.
Ward, S. & Mckenna, M. 2007. It Was Really Moving Mate Gallipoli Pilgrimage and Sentimental Nationalism in Australia. Australian Historical Studies, 38, 141-51. https://doi.org/10.1080/10314610708601236
Watson, D. 2002. Recollections of a Bleeding Heart: A Portrait of Paul Keating PM, Sydney, Random House.
Weiss-Ozorak, E. 2006. The View from the Edge: Pilgrimage and Transformation. In: Jr, W. H. S. (ed.) On the Road to Being There: Studies in Pilgrimage and Tourism in Late Modernity. Boston: Brill Publishing.
West, B. 2008. Enchanting Pasts: The Role of International Civil Religious Pilgrimage in Reimagining National Collective Memory. Sociological Theory, 26, 258-70. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9558.2008.00328.x
White, R. 1981. Inventing Australia: Images and Identity 1688-1980, Sydney, George Allen & Unwin.
Wilson, E. & Little, D. E. 2008. The Solo Female Travel Experience: Exploring the Geography of Women's Fear. Current Issues in Tourism, 11, 167-86. https://doi.org/10.2167/cit342.0
Winter, C. 2011. Battlefield tourism and Australian national identity: Gallipoli and the Western Front. In: Frew, E. & White, L. (eds.) Tourism and National Identity. Hobroken: Taylor and Francis.
Winter, J. 2006. Remembering War: The Great War Between Memory and History in the Twentieth Century, Michigan, Yale University Press.
Ziino, B. 2006. Who Owns Gallipoli? Australia's Gallipoli Anxieties 1915-2005. Journal of Australian Studies, 30, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1080/14443050609388071