Is project management the new management 2.0?
Article Sidebar
Published:
Jun 7, 2014
Keywords:
project management, innivation
Main Article Content
Abstract
This paper considers the evolving nature of project management (PM) and offers a comparison with the evolving nature of management generally. Specifically, we identify a number of management trends that are drawn from a paper that documents a proposed ‘Management 2.0’ model, and we compare those trends to the way in which PM is maturing to embrace the challenges of modern organizational progress.
Some theoretical frameworks are offered that assist in explaining the shift from the historically accepted ‘tools and techniques’ model to a more nuanced and behaviorally driven paradigm that is arguably more appropriate to manage change in today’s flexible and progressive organizations, and which provide a more coherent response, both in PM and traditional management, to McDonald’s forces. In addition, we offer a number of examples to robustly support our assertions, based around the development of innovative products from Apple Inc. In using this metaphor to demonstrate the evolution of project-based work, we link PM with innovation and new product development.
Article Details
Issue
Section
Research Articles (PEER REVIEWED)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
a) Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share and adapt the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
b) Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
c) Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Open Access Citation Advantage Service). Where authors include such a work in an institutional repository or on their website (ie. a copy of a work which has been published in a UTS ePRESS journal, or a pre-print or post-print version of that work), we request that they include a statement that acknowledges the UTS ePRESS publication including the name of the journal, the volume number and a web-link to the journal item.
d) Authors should be aware that the Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) License permits readers to share (copy and redistribute the work in any medium or format) and adapt (remix, transform, and build upon the work) for any purpose, even commercially, provided they also give appropriate credit to the work, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. They may do these things in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests you or your publisher endorses their use.
References
Adams, J.S. 1965. “Injustice in Social Exchange” in Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (vol. 2), (ed.) L. Berkowitz, Academic Press, New York
Ashkanasy N. & Daus C.S. 2005. ‘Rumors of the Death of Emotional Intelligence in Organizational Behavior are Vastly Exaggerated’, Journal of Organizational Behavior, vol. 26, no. 4, 441-452. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/job.320
Barrett, F. J. 1998, ‘Coda: Creativity and Improvisation in Jazz and Organizations: Implications for Organizational Learning’, Organization Science, vol. 9, no. 5 605-622. http://dx.doi.org/10.1287/orsc.9.5.605
Beedle, M., Bennekum, A. V., & Cockburn, A. 2001, Manifesto for agile software development. Available: http://agilemanifesto.org/.
Boehm B. 1986, ‘A Spiral Model of Software Development and Enhancement’, ACM SIGSOFT Software Engineering Notes, vol. 11, no. 4, 14-24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/12944.12948
Burns, T. & Stalker, G.M. 1961, The Management of Innovation, Tavistock, London. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198288787.001.0001
Christensen C.M. 1997, The Innovators Dilemma : The Revolutionary Book That Will Change The Way You Do Business, Harvard Business School Press, Cambridge, MA.
Ciborra, C. U. 1999, ‘Notes on Improvisation and Time in Organizations’, Accounting, Management and Information Technology, vol. 9, no. 1, 77-94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0959-8022(99)00002-8
Cooke-Davies T. 2011, ‘Complexity in Project Management and the Management of Complex Projects’ in Aspects of Complexity: Managing Projects in a Complex World, (ed.) T. Cooke-Davies, Project Management Institute, Newtown Square, PA, 1-13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pmj.21270
Crawford, L., Pollack, J. & England, D. 2006, ‘Uncovering the Trends in Project Management: Journal Emphases Over the Last Ten Years;, International Journal of Project Management, vol.24, 175-184. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2005.10.005
Crossan, M., Cunha, M. P. E., Vera, D. and Cunha, J. 2005, ‘Time and Organizational Improvisation’, Academy of Management Review, vol. 30, no. 1, 129-145. http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/amr.2005.15281441
Crossan, M., and Sorrenti, M. 1997, ‘Making Sense of Improvisation’, Advances of Stra tegic Management, vol. 14, 155-180.
Cunha, M. P., and Cunha, J. V. 2001, ‘Managing Improvisation in Cross Cultural Virtual Teams’, International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, vol. 1, no. 2, 187-208. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/147059580112004
Cunha, M. P., and Cunha, J. V. 2003, ‘Organizational Improvisation and Change : Two Syntheses and a Filled Gap’, Journal of Organizational Change, vol. 16, no. 2, 169-185. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09534810310468143
Cunha, J., and Cunha, M. P. 2008, ‘Improvisation in Organizations’ in The Sage Handbook of New Approaches in Management and Organization, (eds) D. Barry and H. Hansen, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA, 385-395. http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781849200394
Cunha, M. P., Cunha, J. V. and Kamoche, K. 1999, ‘Organizational Improvisation: What, When, How and Why’, International Journal of Management Reviews, vol. 1, no. 3, 299-341. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1468-2370.00017
Cunha, J. V., Kamoche, K. N., and Cunha, M. P. 2002, ‘Once Again: What, How and Why – A Prospectus for Research in Organizational Improvisation’ in Organizational Improvisation, (eds) K. N. Kamoche, M. P. Cunha and J. V. Cunha, Routledge, London, 296-308.
Deming, W.E. (1993) The New Economics for Industry, Government, Education, Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1270625
Drucker, P. 1969, The Age of Discontinuity; Guidelines to Our Changing Society, Harper and Row, New York. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1529579
Durand, D.E. & Nord, W.R, 1976, ‘Perceived Leader Behaviour as a Function of Personality Characteristics of Supervisors and Subordinates’, Academy of Management Journal, vol. 19, 427-438. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/255608
Etzioni A. 1975, A Comparitive Analysis of Complex Organizations, Free Press, New York.
Fiedler, F.E. 1967, A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness, McGraw Hill, New York
Goleman D. 1995, Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ, Bantam Books, New York.
Gratton L., 2011, ‘Workplace 2025: What Will It Look Like?’, Organizational Dynamics, vol. 40, 246-254. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.orgdyn.2011.07.002
Handy, C.B. (1995) Gods of Management: The Changing Work of Organizations, Oxford: Oxford University Press
Hatch, M. J. 1997a, Jazzing Up the Theory of Organizational Improvisation’, Advances of Strategic Management, vol. 14, 181-191.
Hatch, M.J. 1997b, Organization Theory: Modern Symbolic and Postmodern Perspectives, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Hatch, M. J. 1998, ‘Jazz as a Metephor for Organizing in the 21st Century’, Organization Science, vol. 9, no. 5, 556-557. http://dx.doi.org/10.1287/orsc.9.5.556
Hatch, M. J. 1999, ‘Exploring the Empty Spaces of Organizing: How Improvisational Jazz Helps Redescribe Organizational Structure’, Organization Studies, vol. 20, no. 1, 75-100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0170840699201004
Heider, F. 1958, The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Jobs at Apple 2011. Online Available: http://www.apple.com/jobs/us/corporate.html (Accessed 3rd Dec 2011)
Kamoche, K., and Cunha, M. P. 2001, ‘Minimal Structures : From Jazz Improvisation to Product Innovation’, Organization Studies, vol. 22, no. 5, 733-764. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0170840601225001
Kamoche, K., Cunha, M. P. and Cunha, J. V. 2003, ‘Towards a Theory of Organizational Improvisation: Looking Beyond the Jazz Metaphor’, Journal of Management Studies, vol. 40, no. 8, 2023-2051. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1467-6486.2003.00410.x
Kanter, R.M. (1983) The Change Masters: Innovation and Entrepreneurship in the American Corporation, New York, NY: Simon & Schuster, Inc.
Kelley, H.H. 1973, ‘The Process of Causal Attribution’, American Psychologist, February, 107-128. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0034225
Kuhn T.S. 1962, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Lancaster L.C. & Stillman D. 2010, The M-Factor: How the Millenial Generation is rocking the Workplace, Harper Business, New York.
Leybourne, S. A. 2009, ‘Improvisation and Agile Project Management : A Comparative Consideration’, International Journal of Managing Projects in Business, vol. 2, no. 4, 519-535. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/17538370910991124
Leybourne, S., and Sadler-Smith, E. 2006, ‘The Role of Intuiti on and Improvisation in Project Management’, International Journal of Project Management, vol, 24, no, 6, 483-492. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2006.03.007
Locke, E.A. 1968, ‘Towards a Theory of Task Motivation and Incentives’, Organizational Behaviour and Human Performance, vol. 3, 157-189. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0030-5073(68)90004-4
Locke E. 2005, ‘Why Emotional Intelligence is an Invalid Concept’, Journal of Organizational Behavior, vol. 26, no. 4, 425-431. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/job.318
Malzman, R., & Shirley, D. 2011, Green project management, 1st ed., CRC Press, New York, p. 271. http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/ebk1439830017
March, J.G. & Simon, H.A. 1958, Organizations, John Wiley, New York.
Mayo, E.G. (1933) The Human Problems of an Industrial Civilization, Reprinted by Routledge, 2003
McDonald, P. 2011, ‘It’s time for management version 2.0: Six forces redefining the future of modern management’, Futures, vol.43, 797–808. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.futures.2011.05.001
Miner, A. S., Bassoff, P. and Moorman, C. 2001, ‘Organizational Improvisation and Learning: A Field Study’, Administrative Science Quarterly, vol. 46, no. 2, 304-337. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2667089
Moorman, C., and Miner, A. S. 1998a, ‘The Convergence of Planning and Execution : Improvisation in New Product Development’, Journal of Marketing, vol. 62, no. 3, 1-20. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1251740
Moorman, C. and Miner, A. S. 1998b, ‘Organizational Improvisation and Organizational Memory’, Academy of Management Review, vol. 23, no. 4, 698-723. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/259058
Mullins, L.J. 1999, Management and Organisational Behaviour, Pearson Education Ltd, Harlow, Essex.
Nonaka, I. & Takeuchi, H. 1995, The Knowledge-creating Company, Oxford University Press, New York.
Ong, J. 2011, Apple VP Shares Four Keys to Company, Online, Available: http://www.appleinsider.com/articles/11/11/19/apple_vp_shares_four_keys_to_company_success.html (Accessed 19 Nov 2011).
Orlikowski, W. A. 1996, ‘Improvising Organizational Transformation over Time: A Situated Change Perspective’, Information Systems Research, vol. 7, no. 1, 63-92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1287/isre.7.1.63
Panas, A. (2006) The changing role of project management teams in distributed environments. Unpublished MSc Dissertation. Loughborough University
Pfeffer, J. & Salancik, G.R. 1978, The External Control of Organizations: A Resource Dependence Perspective, Harper & Row, New York.
PM network 2009, ‘The Buzz’, Project Management Institute, September.
Polanyi M. 1958, Personal Knowledge: Towards a Post-Critical Philosophy, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Polanyi, M. 1966, The Tacit Dimension, Doubleday & Co, Inc., New York.
Pollack, J. 2007, ‘The Changing Paradigms of Project Management’, International Journal of Project Management, vol. 25, 266-274. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2006.08.002
Porter, L.W. & Lawler, E.E. 1968, Managerial Attitudes and Performance, Irwin, Homewood, IL.
Project Management Institute 2005, A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge, PMI, Newtown Square, PA.
Rynes, S.L., Bartunek, J.M., & Draft, D.L. 2001, ‘Across the Great Divide: Knowledge Creation and Transfer between Practitioners and Academics’, Academy of Management Review, vol.44, no.2, 340-355. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3069460
Sadington, P. 2011, Apple, Google, or Microsoft? – Which does agile better?, Online Available: http://agilescout.com/apple-google-or-microsoft-which-does-agile-better/, (Accessed 3 Feb 2011).
Sarasvathy S.D. 2008, Effectuation: Elements of Entrepreneurial Expertise, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, UK.
Saynisch, M. (2010) Beyond Frontiers of Traditional Project Management: An Approach to Evolutionary, Self-Organizational Principles and the Complexity Theory—Results of the Research Program Project Management Journal vol 41, No. 2, 21-37 http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pmj.20159
Schmid B. & Adams J. (2008) Motivation in project management: The project manager's perspective, Project Management Journal, vol. 39, no.2: 60-71 http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pmj.20042
Senge P. 1990, The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization, Doubleday, New York.
Sense A. 2007, Cultivating Learning Within Projects, Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9780230591967
Simon, H.A. 1956, ‘Rational Choice and the Structure of the Environment’, Psychological Review, vol.63, 129-138. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0042769
Simon, H.A. 1957, ‘A Behavioural Model of Rational Choice’ in Models of Man, (ed.) H.A. Simon, John Wiley, New York.
Schwartz, A. 2010, Is it green?: The apple ipad, Online Available: http://inhabitat.com/how-green-is-apples-ipad/, (Accessed 27 Jan 2012).
Tapscott D. & Williams A.D. 2006, Wikinomics : How Mass Collaboration Changes Everything, Portfolio/Penguin books (USA), Inc., New York.
Taylor F.W. (1911) The Principles of Scientific Management New York, NY : Harper & Brothers
Vendelø, M. T. 2009, ‘Improvisation and Learning in Organizations - an Opportunity for Future Empirical Research’, Management Learning, vol. 40, no. 4, 449-456. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1350507609339684
H.A. von der Gracht, C.R. Vennemann, I.L. Darkow 2010, ‘Corporate Foresight and Innovation Management: A Portfolio-Approach In Evaluating Organizational Development’, Futures, vol. 42, 380–393. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.futures.2009.11.023
Weick, K. E. 1993, ‘Organizational Redesign as Improvisation’ in Organizational Change and Redesign, Ideas and Insights for Improving Performance, (eds) G. P. Huber and W. H. Glick, Oxford University Press, New York, 347-379.
Vroom, V.H. 1964, Work and Motivation, John Wiley, New York.
Vroom, V.H. & Yetton, P.W. 1973, Leadership and Decision-Making, Uni of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh, PA.
Zack, M. 2000, ‘Jazz Improvisation and Organizing: Once More from the Top’ Organization Science, vol. 11, no.2, 227-234. http://dx.doi.org/10.1287/orsc.11.2.227.12507
Ashkanasy N. & Daus C.S. 2005. ‘Rumors of the Death of Emotional Intelligence in Organizational Behavior are Vastly Exaggerated’, Journal of Organizational Behavior, vol. 26, no. 4, 441-452. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/job.320
Barrett, F. J. 1998, ‘Coda: Creativity and Improvisation in Jazz and Organizations: Implications for Organizational Learning’, Organization Science, vol. 9, no. 5 605-622. http://dx.doi.org/10.1287/orsc.9.5.605
Beedle, M., Bennekum, A. V., & Cockburn, A. 2001, Manifesto for agile software development. Available: http://agilemanifesto.org/.
Boehm B. 1986, ‘A Spiral Model of Software Development and Enhancement’, ACM SIGSOFT Software Engineering Notes, vol. 11, no. 4, 14-24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/12944.12948
Burns, T. & Stalker, G.M. 1961, The Management of Innovation, Tavistock, London. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198288787.001.0001
Christensen C.M. 1997, The Innovators Dilemma : The Revolutionary Book That Will Change The Way You Do Business, Harvard Business School Press, Cambridge, MA.
Ciborra, C. U. 1999, ‘Notes on Improvisation and Time in Organizations’, Accounting, Management and Information Technology, vol. 9, no. 1, 77-94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0959-8022(99)00002-8
Cooke-Davies T. 2011, ‘Complexity in Project Management and the Management of Complex Projects’ in Aspects of Complexity: Managing Projects in a Complex World, (ed.) T. Cooke-Davies, Project Management Institute, Newtown Square, PA, 1-13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pmj.21270
Crawford, L., Pollack, J. & England, D. 2006, ‘Uncovering the Trends in Project Management: Journal Emphases Over the Last Ten Years;, International Journal of Project Management, vol.24, 175-184. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2005.10.005
Crossan, M., Cunha, M. P. E., Vera, D. and Cunha, J. 2005, ‘Time and Organizational Improvisation’, Academy of Management Review, vol. 30, no. 1, 129-145. http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/amr.2005.15281441
Crossan, M., and Sorrenti, M. 1997, ‘Making Sense of Improvisation’, Advances of Stra tegic Management, vol. 14, 155-180.
Cunha, M. P., and Cunha, J. V. 2001, ‘Managing Improvisation in Cross Cultural Virtual Teams’, International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, vol. 1, no. 2, 187-208. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/147059580112004
Cunha, M. P., and Cunha, J. V. 2003, ‘Organizational Improvisation and Change : Two Syntheses and a Filled Gap’, Journal of Organizational Change, vol. 16, no. 2, 169-185. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09534810310468143
Cunha, J., and Cunha, M. P. 2008, ‘Improvisation in Organizations’ in The Sage Handbook of New Approaches in Management and Organization, (eds) D. Barry and H. Hansen, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA, 385-395. http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781849200394
Cunha, M. P., Cunha, J. V. and Kamoche, K. 1999, ‘Organizational Improvisation: What, When, How and Why’, International Journal of Management Reviews, vol. 1, no. 3, 299-341. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1468-2370.00017
Cunha, J. V., Kamoche, K. N., and Cunha, M. P. 2002, ‘Once Again: What, How and Why – A Prospectus for Research in Organizational Improvisation’ in Organizational Improvisation, (eds) K. N. Kamoche, M. P. Cunha and J. V. Cunha, Routledge, London, 296-308.
Deming, W.E. (1993) The New Economics for Industry, Government, Education, Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1270625
Drucker, P. 1969, The Age of Discontinuity; Guidelines to Our Changing Society, Harper and Row, New York. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1529579
Durand, D.E. & Nord, W.R, 1976, ‘Perceived Leader Behaviour as a Function of Personality Characteristics of Supervisors and Subordinates’, Academy of Management Journal, vol. 19, 427-438. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/255608
Etzioni A. 1975, A Comparitive Analysis of Complex Organizations, Free Press, New York.
Fiedler, F.E. 1967, A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness, McGraw Hill, New York
Goleman D. 1995, Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ, Bantam Books, New York.
Gratton L., 2011, ‘Workplace 2025: What Will It Look Like?’, Organizational Dynamics, vol. 40, 246-254. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.orgdyn.2011.07.002
Handy, C.B. (1995) Gods of Management: The Changing Work of Organizations, Oxford: Oxford University Press
Hatch, M. J. 1997a, Jazzing Up the Theory of Organizational Improvisation’, Advances of Strategic Management, vol. 14, 181-191.
Hatch, M.J. 1997b, Organization Theory: Modern Symbolic and Postmodern Perspectives, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Hatch, M. J. 1998, ‘Jazz as a Metephor for Organizing in the 21st Century’, Organization Science, vol. 9, no. 5, 556-557. http://dx.doi.org/10.1287/orsc.9.5.556
Hatch, M. J. 1999, ‘Exploring the Empty Spaces of Organizing: How Improvisational Jazz Helps Redescribe Organizational Structure’, Organization Studies, vol. 20, no. 1, 75-100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0170840699201004
Heider, F. 1958, The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Jobs at Apple 2011. Online Available: http://www.apple.com/jobs/us/corporate.html (Accessed 3rd Dec 2011)
Kamoche, K., and Cunha, M. P. 2001, ‘Minimal Structures : From Jazz Improvisation to Product Innovation’, Organization Studies, vol. 22, no. 5, 733-764. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0170840601225001
Kamoche, K., Cunha, M. P. and Cunha, J. V. 2003, ‘Towards a Theory of Organizational Improvisation: Looking Beyond the Jazz Metaphor’, Journal of Management Studies, vol. 40, no. 8, 2023-2051. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1467-6486.2003.00410.x
Kanter, R.M. (1983) The Change Masters: Innovation and Entrepreneurship in the American Corporation, New York, NY: Simon & Schuster, Inc.
Kelley, H.H. 1973, ‘The Process of Causal Attribution’, American Psychologist, February, 107-128. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0034225
Kuhn T.S. 1962, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Lancaster L.C. & Stillman D. 2010, The M-Factor: How the Millenial Generation is rocking the Workplace, Harper Business, New York.
Leybourne, S. A. 2009, ‘Improvisation and Agile Project Management : A Comparative Consideration’, International Journal of Managing Projects in Business, vol. 2, no. 4, 519-535. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/17538370910991124
Leybourne, S., and Sadler-Smith, E. 2006, ‘The Role of Intuiti on and Improvisation in Project Management’, International Journal of Project Management, vol, 24, no, 6, 483-492. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2006.03.007
Locke, E.A. 1968, ‘Towards a Theory of Task Motivation and Incentives’, Organizational Behaviour and Human Performance, vol. 3, 157-189. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0030-5073(68)90004-4
Locke E. 2005, ‘Why Emotional Intelligence is an Invalid Concept’, Journal of Organizational Behavior, vol. 26, no. 4, 425-431. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/job.318
Malzman, R., & Shirley, D. 2011, Green project management, 1st ed., CRC Press, New York, p. 271. http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/ebk1439830017
March, J.G. & Simon, H.A. 1958, Organizations, John Wiley, New York.
Mayo, E.G. (1933) The Human Problems of an Industrial Civilization, Reprinted by Routledge, 2003
McDonald, P. 2011, ‘It’s time for management version 2.0: Six forces redefining the future of modern management’, Futures, vol.43, 797–808. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.futures.2011.05.001
Miner, A. S., Bassoff, P. and Moorman, C. 2001, ‘Organizational Improvisation and Learning: A Field Study’, Administrative Science Quarterly, vol. 46, no. 2, 304-337. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2667089
Moorman, C., and Miner, A. S. 1998a, ‘The Convergence of Planning and Execution : Improvisation in New Product Development’, Journal of Marketing, vol. 62, no. 3, 1-20. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1251740
Moorman, C. and Miner, A. S. 1998b, ‘Organizational Improvisation and Organizational Memory’, Academy of Management Review, vol. 23, no. 4, 698-723. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/259058
Mullins, L.J. 1999, Management and Organisational Behaviour, Pearson Education Ltd, Harlow, Essex.
Nonaka, I. & Takeuchi, H. 1995, The Knowledge-creating Company, Oxford University Press, New York.
Ong, J. 2011, Apple VP Shares Four Keys to Company, Online, Available: http://www.appleinsider.com/articles/11/11/19/apple_vp_shares_four_keys_to_company_success.html (Accessed 19 Nov 2011).
Orlikowski, W. A. 1996, ‘Improvising Organizational Transformation over Time: A Situated Change Perspective’, Information Systems Research, vol. 7, no. 1, 63-92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1287/isre.7.1.63
Panas, A. (2006) The changing role of project management teams in distributed environments. Unpublished MSc Dissertation. Loughborough University
Pfeffer, J. & Salancik, G.R. 1978, The External Control of Organizations: A Resource Dependence Perspective, Harper & Row, New York.
PM network 2009, ‘The Buzz’, Project Management Institute, September.
Polanyi M. 1958, Personal Knowledge: Towards a Post-Critical Philosophy, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Polanyi, M. 1966, The Tacit Dimension, Doubleday & Co, Inc., New York.
Pollack, J. 2007, ‘The Changing Paradigms of Project Management’, International Journal of Project Management, vol. 25, 266-274. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2006.08.002
Porter, L.W. & Lawler, E.E. 1968, Managerial Attitudes and Performance, Irwin, Homewood, IL.
Project Management Institute 2005, A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge, PMI, Newtown Square, PA.
Rynes, S.L., Bartunek, J.M., & Draft, D.L. 2001, ‘Across the Great Divide: Knowledge Creation and Transfer between Practitioners and Academics’, Academy of Management Review, vol.44, no.2, 340-355. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3069460
Sadington, P. 2011, Apple, Google, or Microsoft? – Which does agile better?, Online Available: http://agilescout.com/apple-google-or-microsoft-which-does-agile-better/, (Accessed 3 Feb 2011).
Sarasvathy S.D. 2008, Effectuation: Elements of Entrepreneurial Expertise, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, UK.
Saynisch, M. (2010) Beyond Frontiers of Traditional Project Management: An Approach to Evolutionary, Self-Organizational Principles and the Complexity Theory—Results of the Research Program Project Management Journal vol 41, No. 2, 21-37 http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pmj.20159
Schmid B. & Adams J. (2008) Motivation in project management: The project manager's perspective, Project Management Journal, vol. 39, no.2: 60-71 http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pmj.20042
Senge P. 1990, The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization, Doubleday, New York.
Sense A. 2007, Cultivating Learning Within Projects, Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9780230591967
Simon, H.A. 1956, ‘Rational Choice and the Structure of the Environment’, Psychological Review, vol.63, 129-138. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0042769
Simon, H.A. 1957, ‘A Behavioural Model of Rational Choice’ in Models of Man, (ed.) H.A. Simon, John Wiley, New York.
Schwartz, A. 2010, Is it green?: The apple ipad, Online Available: http://inhabitat.com/how-green-is-apples-ipad/, (Accessed 27 Jan 2012).
Tapscott D. & Williams A.D. 2006, Wikinomics : How Mass Collaboration Changes Everything, Portfolio/Penguin books (USA), Inc., New York.
Taylor F.W. (1911) The Principles of Scientific Management New York, NY : Harper & Brothers
Vendelø, M. T. 2009, ‘Improvisation and Learning in Organizations - an Opportunity for Future Empirical Research’, Management Learning, vol. 40, no. 4, 449-456. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1350507609339684
H.A. von der Gracht, C.R. Vennemann, I.L. Darkow 2010, ‘Corporate Foresight and Innovation Management: A Portfolio-Approach In Evaluating Organizational Development’, Futures, vol. 42, 380–393. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.futures.2009.11.023
Weick, K. E. 1993, ‘Organizational Redesign as Improvisation’ in Organizational Change and Redesign, Ideas and Insights for Improving Performance, (eds) G. P. Huber and W. H. Glick, Oxford University Press, New York, 347-379.
Vroom, V.H. 1964, Work and Motivation, John Wiley, New York.
Vroom, V.H. & Yetton, P.W. 1973, Leadership and Decision-Making, Uni of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh, PA.
Zack, M. 2000, ‘Jazz Improvisation and Organizing: Once More from the Top’ Organization Science, vol. 11, no.2, 227-234. http://dx.doi.org/10.1287/orsc.11.2.227.12507