The ‘Young Muslim Man’ in Australian Public Discourse
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Abstract
Through an analysis of two highly mediatised recent events in Australia this article seeks to interrogate the intersections of gender, ethnicity and culture in the construction of Australian national identity. A series of gang rapes in the early 2000s attracted widespread public outrage and the harshest ever condemnation of acts of sexual violence in Australian history. Linked to these events, in December 2005 a series of riots at the Sydney beachside suburb of Cronulla led to further questioning of ethnic relations and the state of Australian multiculturalism within media and political discourses. While many of the responses to the gang rapes and the Cronulla riots have drawn on the language of ‘women’s rights’, a closer look at the discourses suggests a different story. Responses to the gang rapes have often characterised the attacks as being against the Australian community, rather than against individual women. It is also interesting to contrast the outrage surrounding the gang rapes with the general silence regarding the increased racist violence committed against Muslim women in recent times. Furthermore, the linking of the gang rapes with a particular religious/ethnic community can be contrasted with the discourses on the alleged gang rapes involving Australian sporting teams, such as the Bulldogs and more recently the Wests Tigers. Finally the manner in which the events of Cronulla have been recast and linked back to the ‘threat’ posed by young Muslim/Lebanese/Middle Eastern men to Australian women suggests that ethnicity and gender both play an important and mutually reinforcing role in the construction of Australian national identity.
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References
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ABC 7:30 Report, 15 July 2002 – transcript available at: http:///www.abc.net.au/7.30/s607758.htm
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ABC Lateline, "Ethnic Crime under Sydney Scrutiny" ABC, 22 August 2001 – transcript available at http://www.abc.net.au/lateline/s351038.htm
ABC Mediawatch, "Criminal Gang or Islamic Gangs?" 9 September 2002 - available at http://www.abc.net.au/mediawatch/transcripts/090902_s2.htm
ABC Mediawatch, "Front page: Jones and Cronulla" 2 February 2006 – available at: http://www.abc.net.au/mediawatch/transcripts/s1574155.htm
Albrechtsen, Janet "Heed the PM's call for women's rights" The Australian, 6 September 2006.
Albrechtsen, Janet "Human rights can no longer be sacrosanct" The Australian, 13 September 2006.
Albrechtsen, Janet "Let us not overlook the race factor" The Australian, 17 March 2004.
Albrechtsen, Janet "Talking race not racism" The Australian, 17 July 2002.
Askin, Kelly Dawn (1997) War Crimes Against Women: Prosecution in International War Crimes Tribunals, The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.
Batrouney, Trevor (2002) "From 'White Australia' to Multiculturalism: citizenship and identity" in Hage (ed) Arab-Australians today: citizenship and belonging, Carlton South,Victoria: Melbourne University Press.
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Bone, Pamela "Rape: the debate we have to have" The Age, 24 July 2002.
Browning, Julie & Jakubowicz, Andrew (2004) "Respect and Racism in Australia: Discussion Paper No. 2" Racism Monitor, University of Technology, Sydney – http://www.fairgo.net
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Devine, Miranda "Racist rapes: Finally the truth comes out" The Sun-Herald, 14 July 2002.
Duff, Eamonn "Crisis centre says gang rape a problem across all races" Sun-Herald, 21 July 2002.
Eisenstein, Zillah (2000) "Writing bodies on the nation for the globe" in RanchodNilsson, Sita and Tétreault, Mary-Ann (eds) Women, States and Nationalism: At home in the nation? London & New York: Routledge.
Elder, Catriona (2003) "Invaders, Illegals and Aliens: Imagining Exclusion in a 'White Australia'", Law Text Culture, Vol 7: 221-250.
Fanon, Frantz (1965) "Algeria Unveiled" in A Dying Colonialism, New York: Grove Press.
Fickling, David "Racially motivated crime and punishment" The Guardian 23 September 2002 - available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/elsewhere/journalist/story/0,7792,797463,00.htm
Gunew, Sneja (2004) Haunted Nations: The colonial dimensions of multiculturalisms, London & New York: Routledge.
Hage, Ghassan (ed) (2002) Arab-Australians today: citizenship and belonging, Carlton South, Victoria: Melbourne University Press.
Hartcher, Peter, Coorey, Philip & Braithwaite, David "Sheik falls on his sword" Sydney Morning Herald, 31 October 2006.
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Jayawardena, Kumari & De Alwis, Malathi (eds) (1996) Embodied Violence: Communalising Women's Sexuality in South Asia, London & New Jersey: Zed Books.
Kampmark, Binoy (2003) "Islam, Women and Australia's cultural discourse of terror" Hecate 29:1:86-106.
Kerbaj, Richard "Howard stands by Muslim integration" The Australian, 1 September 2006.
Kesic, Obrad (1999) "Women and Gender Imagery in Bosnia: Amazons, Sluts, Victims, Witches and Wombs" in Ramet, Sabrina P. (ed) Gender and Politics in the Western Balkans: Women and Society in Yugoslavia and the Yugoslav Successor States, University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press.
MacDougall, Gay J. Special Rapporteur of the Working Group on Contemporary Forms of Slavery (1998) Systematic rape, sexual slavery and slavery-like practices during armed conflict, Final Report to the Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights 50th session, 24 June 1998 – E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13 – available at: http://www.unhchr.ch/Huridocda/Huridoca.nsf/0/3d25270b5fa3ea998025665f0032f220?Opendocument
Marks, Kathy "And they call it a British disease" The Independent on Sunday, 7 March 2004 – available at: http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4159/is_20040307/ai_n12751183
Marr, David "Alan Jones: I'm the person that's led this charge" The Age, 13 December 2005.
Murphy, Damien "Thugs ruled the streets and the mob sang Waltzing Matilda", Sydney Morning Herald, 12 December 2005.
Nagel, Joane (2003) Race, Ethnicity and Sexuality: Intimate Intersections, Forbidden Frontiers, New York & Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Poynting, Scott (2006) "What caused the Cronulla riot?" Race & Class 48(1), 85-92. https://doi.org/10.1177/030639680604800116
Poynting, Scott, Noble, Greg, Tabar, Paul & Collins, Jock (2004) Bin Laden in the Suburbs: Criminalising the Arab Other, Sydney: Sydney Institute of Criminology Series.
Racioppi, Linda & O'Sullivan See, Katherine (2000) "Engendering nation and national identity" in Ranchod-Nilsson, Sita and Tétreault, Mary-Ann (eds) Women, States and Nationalism: At home in the nation? London & New York: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203361122_chapter_2
Sheehan, Paul (2006) Girls Like You, Sydney: Macmillan.
Toy, Naomi & Knowles, Lorna "Pack rapists' racial taunts" Sydney Morning Herald, 24 August 2001.
Wakim, Joseph "Gang rape, sport, power – and prejudice" The Age, 9 March 2004.
Warner, Kate (2004) "Gang rape in Sydney: crimes, the media, politics, race and sentencing" Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, Vol. 37, Issue 3:344-362. https://doi.org/10.1375/acri.37.3.344
Willis, Karen "The Legal System's Response to Sexual Assault" Presentation to the Institute of Criminology, University of Sydney, 5 September 2006 – available at: http://www.nswrapecrisis.com.au/LatestNews/Speeches/KarenWillisSpeech-5.9.06.pdf
Yuval-Davis, Nira (1997) Gender & nation: SAGE Publishers, London.
AAP "Cleric's comments condemned" Sun Herald, 26 October 2006.
AAP "PM refuses to use racist tag", Sydney Morning Herald, 12 December 2005.
AAP, "Fight for Cronulla" Daily Telegraph, 6 December 2005.
AAP, "Muslim rallying call", Daily Telegraph, 1 November 2006.
AAP, "Spate of shootings 'are a form of mental rape'" Sydney Morning Herald, 31 October 2003.
ABC 7:30 Report, 15 July 2002 – transcript available at: http:///www.abc.net.au/7.30/s607758.htm
ABC Four Corners, "Riot and Revenge" 13 March 2006 - transcript available at http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/content/2006/s1590953.htm
ABC Lateline, "Ethnic Crime under Sydney Scrutiny" ABC, 22 August 2001 – transcript available at http://www.abc.net.au/lateline/s351038.htm
ABC Mediawatch, "Criminal Gang or Islamic Gangs?" 9 September 2002 - available at http://www.abc.net.au/mediawatch/transcripts/090902_s2.htm
ABC Mediawatch, "Front page: Jones and Cronulla" 2 February 2006 – available at: http://www.abc.net.au/mediawatch/transcripts/s1574155.htm
Albrechtsen, Janet "Heed the PM's call for women's rights" The Australian, 6 September 2006.
Albrechtsen, Janet "Human rights can no longer be sacrosanct" The Australian, 13 September 2006.
Albrechtsen, Janet "Let us not overlook the race factor" The Australian, 17 March 2004.
Albrechtsen, Janet "Talking race not racism" The Australian, 17 July 2002.
Askin, Kelly Dawn (1997) War Crimes Against Women: Prosecution in International War Crimes Tribunals, The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.
Batrouney, Trevor (2002) "From 'White Australia' to Multiculturalism: citizenship and identity" in Hage (ed) Arab-Australians today: citizenship and belonging, Carlton South,Victoria: Melbourne University Press.
BBC BBC Breakfast, "Rape: Is a woman's behaviour to blame?" 21 November 2005 – available at http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/breakfast/4455622.stm
Bone, Pamela "Rape: the debate we have to have" The Age, 24 July 2002.
Browning, Julie & Jakubowicz, Andrew (2004) "Respect and Racism in Australia: Discussion Paper No. 2" Racism Monitor, University of Technology, Sydney – http://www.fairgo.net
Collins, Jock, Noble, Greg, Poynting, Scott & Tabar, Paul (2000) Kebabs, kids, cops & crime, Annandale NSW: Pluto Press.
Costello, Peter, Interview on Channel 9 Sunrise, 26 October 2006 - available at: http://www.treasurer.gov.au/tsr/content/transcripts/2006/157.asp
Costello, Peter, Interview with Alan Jones, 2 GB Radio, 31 October 2006 – transcript available at http://www.treasurer.gov.au/tsr/content/transcripts/2006/159.asp
Devine, Miranda "Racist rapes: Finally the truth comes out" The Sun-Herald, 14 July 2002.
Duff, Eamonn "Crisis centre says gang rape a problem across all races" Sun-Herald, 21 July 2002.
Eisenstein, Zillah (2000) "Writing bodies on the nation for the globe" in RanchodNilsson, Sita and Tétreault, Mary-Ann (eds) Women, States and Nationalism: At home in the nation? London & New York: Routledge.
Elder, Catriona (2003) "Invaders, Illegals and Aliens: Imagining Exclusion in a 'White Australia'", Law Text Culture, Vol 7: 221-250.
Fanon, Frantz (1965) "Algeria Unveiled" in A Dying Colonialism, New York: Grove Press.
Fickling, David "Racially motivated crime and punishment" The Guardian 23 September 2002 - available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/elsewhere/journalist/story/0,7792,797463,00.htm
Gunew, Sneja (2004) Haunted Nations: The colonial dimensions of multiculturalisms, London & New York: Routledge.
Hage, Ghassan (ed) (2002) Arab-Australians today: citizenship and belonging, Carlton South, Victoria: Melbourne University Press.
Hartcher, Peter, Coorey, Philip & Braithwaite, David "Sheik falls on his sword" Sydney Morning Herald, 31 October 2006.
Ho, Christina (2006) "Cronulla, conflict & culture: how can Muslim women be heard in Australia?" UTSpeaks Public Lecture, 5 September 2006: http://www.uts.edu.au/new/releases/2006/September/images/utsspeaks_dr_ho.pdf
Howard, John, Press conference, Phillip Street, Sydney, 13 December 2005 – available at http://www.pm.gov.au/News/interviews/Interview1723.html
Human Rights & Equal Opportunities Commission (HREOC) (2004) Isma – Listen, report of national consultations on eliminating prejudice against Arab and Muslim Australians– available at: http://www.hreoc.gov.au/racial_discrimination/isma/report/chap2.html#2_1
Jayawardena, Kumari & De Alwis, Malathi (eds) (1996) Embodied Violence: Communalising Women's Sexuality in South Asia, London & New Jersey: Zed Books.
Kampmark, Binoy (2003) "Islam, Women and Australia's cultural discourse of terror" Hecate 29:1:86-106.
Kerbaj, Richard "Howard stands by Muslim integration" The Australian, 1 September 2006.
Kesic, Obrad (1999) "Women and Gender Imagery in Bosnia: Amazons, Sluts, Victims, Witches and Wombs" in Ramet, Sabrina P. (ed) Gender and Politics in the Western Balkans: Women and Society in Yugoslavia and the Yugoslav Successor States, University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press.
MacDougall, Gay J. Special Rapporteur of the Working Group on Contemporary Forms of Slavery (1998) Systematic rape, sexual slavery and slavery-like practices during armed conflict, Final Report to the Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights 50th session, 24 June 1998 – E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13 – available at: http://www.unhchr.ch/Huridocda/Huridoca.nsf/0/3d25270b5fa3ea998025665f0032f220?Opendocument
Marks, Kathy "And they call it a British disease" The Independent on Sunday, 7 March 2004 – available at: http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4159/is_20040307/ai_n12751183
Marr, David "Alan Jones: I'm the person that's led this charge" The Age, 13 December 2005.
Murphy, Damien "Thugs ruled the streets and the mob sang Waltzing Matilda", Sydney Morning Herald, 12 December 2005.
Nagel, Joane (2003) Race, Ethnicity and Sexuality: Intimate Intersections, Forbidden Frontiers, New York & Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Poynting, Scott (2006) "What caused the Cronulla riot?" Race & Class 48(1), 85-92. https://doi.org/10.1177/030639680604800116
Poynting, Scott, Noble, Greg, Tabar, Paul & Collins, Jock (2004) Bin Laden in the Suburbs: Criminalising the Arab Other, Sydney: Sydney Institute of Criminology Series.
Racioppi, Linda & O'Sullivan See, Katherine (2000) "Engendering nation and national identity" in Ranchod-Nilsson, Sita and Tétreault, Mary-Ann (eds) Women, States and Nationalism: At home in the nation? London & New York: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203361122_chapter_2
Sheehan, Paul (2006) Girls Like You, Sydney: Macmillan.
Toy, Naomi & Knowles, Lorna "Pack rapists' racial taunts" Sydney Morning Herald, 24 August 2001.
Wakim, Joseph "Gang rape, sport, power – and prejudice" The Age, 9 March 2004.
Warner, Kate (2004) "Gang rape in Sydney: crimes, the media, politics, race and sentencing" Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, Vol. 37, Issue 3:344-362. https://doi.org/10.1375/acri.37.3.344
Willis, Karen "The Legal System's Response to Sexual Assault" Presentation to the Institute of Criminology, University of Sydney, 5 September 2006 – available at: http://www.nswrapecrisis.com.au/LatestNews/Speeches/KarenWillisSpeech-5.9.06.pdf
Yuval-Davis, Nira (1997) Gender & nation: SAGE Publishers, London.