Project Management Research and Practice
Project Management Research and Practice (PMRP) has moved during 2020 to a new platform and is no longer published by UTS ePRESS. The new PMRP website url is: https://pmrp.online/index.php/pmrp/index Earlier, now archived, issues of PMRP published by UTS ePRESS (2016-2018) can be found via this UTS ePRESS page. Greater attention is needed on the humanitarian dimensions, uses and applications of projects and project management. Researchers can provide relevant evidence-based information to empower practitioners, and Project Management Research and Practice has been conceived, developed and published to do this. Research papers, practitioner articles, and other high quality submissions will be published to contribute to the broader conversation of how projects and their management can affect meaningful, socially-responsible change in support of public priorities. Climate action, health and well-being, education, sustainable consumption, smart cities and renewable energy are a few of these many topics. PMRP editors believe that a better world is possible where humanity's problems are alleviated through innovative projects and socially responsible project management research and practice. Its mission is to provide a forum where evidence-based, informed dialogue can occur with project management researchers, practitioners and other stakeholders on such challenges. The role of projects in addressing these challenges needs to be understood but not the singular focus of research and/or practitioner journals in the project management community. PMRP has changed that and wants to work with any contributor interested in these important conversations.
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Conversations about projects and project management are changing. Project Management researchers and practitioners are no longer only focused on the processes and practices, but increasingly looking for ‘some truths’ of project management (Morris, 2016) – truth that can be as likely found when considering values as much as knowledge. And what is considered to be so valuable that a new journal is needed to reveal those truths? Quite simply…a better world where humanity’s problems are alleviated through shared and publicly available innovative projects, and socially responsible project management research and practice. And what is PMRP’s role in this quest? To provide a forum where informed dialogue can occur with project management researchers, practitioners and other stakeholders.
Guest Editorial: Reinvigorating Project Management Research and Practice: Perspectives from the Non-Profit Sector
The genesis of this Special Issue was a conference on “Delivering Social Good: Managing Projects in the Non-Profit Sector” held at the University of Limerick in October 2014. The diversity that exists within the broad non-profit sector became apparent at this event, as did its increasing projectification and the variety of organizational forms and models resulting from this trend. Tools, techniques, processes and practices inherited from the business world were described, as were methodologies adopted, adapted and specifically designed for work in areas like international development, humanitarian work and community settings. Insights into the lived experiences of project managers in the non-profit sector were also shared, as were a number of diverse conceptualisations of temporary organisations.
Copyright (c) 2016 John Lannon, John Walsh
For the past 60 years, organisations have increasingly been using projects and management of, by and for projects to achieve their strategic objectives (Morris & Jamieson, 2004; Morris & Geraldi, 2011). Project management (PM) makes an important and significant contribution to value creation globally. However, the ‘glocal’ context in which projects are performed shows increasing volatility, uncertainty, complexity, and ambiguity (‘VUCA’) affecting organisations and the socio-economic environment, within which they operate (Gareis, 2005). Two main dimensions are considered in research: uncertainty (and its two dimensions: volatility and ambiguity), and complexity (Bredillet, 2015). Because action takes place over time, and because the future is unknowable, action is inherently uncertain (Aristotle, 1926, 1357a). Acts involve time, irreversibility, indetermination and contingence, and uncertainty (Sanderson, 2012; Knight, 1921). "We simply do not know" (Keynes, 1937, pp. 113–114). Management situations (here both Practice and Research) are complex systems in the way they involve interdependence and connections between actors, ‘objects’ and the context.
Complex non-profit collaboration: A Case Study of The Advocacy Initiative
In 2008 in Ireland there was a real sense that social justice advocacy, by non-profit organisations, was under threat from the state. The experience of many advocates and their organisations was that the state was actively working to silence advocacy. However there were no or few spaces where the non-profit sector (in Ireland often referred to as the community and voluntary sector) could reflect and dialogue about social justice advocacy: the threats it faced, its purpose, methodologies, effectiveness, assumptions, and legitimacy. Where spaces did exist there were low levels of trust and not always room for dissent from dominant narratives (Murphy 2014). The Advocacy Initiative was established to provide the opportunity for the sector to come to grips with these challenges and consider more deeply its advocacy function.
Adopting Results Based Management in the Non-Profit Sector: Trócaire’s Experience
The increasing emphasis on aid effectiveness, accountability and impact measurement in international development and humanitarian work has generated a requirement for high quality internal systems for the management of programmes. To help to address this requirement, Trócaire adopted Results Based Management in the 20 countries in which it works. This paper provides an overview of Trócaire’s RBM journey, including the process of embedding the new approach in the organisation, lessons learnt from this process, the subsequent benefits that are emerging at field programme level and the challenges going forward.
Copyright (c) 2016 Eoghan McKernan, Karen Kennedy, Allison Aldred
Managing an Integrated Project - Experiences from the Realigning Agriculture to Improve Nutrition project
Over the last number of decades there has been a tendency within the international development sector to privilege the management of projects in a siloed manner. This translates to projects managed in a narrow way according to pre-defined parameters of say the education or health sectors. As a project manager you are held accountable for delivering education or health outputs. A shift in donor funding to focus on development projects that are considered easy to administer partly explains this siloed approach to project management within the development sector. However, there is a gradual kick back against the siloed project management approach. Instead we are seeing a return to an integrated managerial approach. An integrated managerial approach involves bringing together various technical specialists to work on common objectives in a coordinated and collaborative manner. A growing number of development actors such as Concern Worldwide are embracing this ‘new approach’. For Concern Worldwide integrated projects are interventions which address multiple needs through coordination across a variety of sectors and with the participation of all relevant stakeholders to achieve common goals. Integrated projects are about sector projects working together with the same target group in the same area in a coordinated manner. This paper reflects on Concern’s experience and evidence to date with integration drawing on the agency’s work in Zambia. The Realigning Agriculture to Improve Nutrition project in Zambia highlights the practical challenges and lessons of managing an integrated project.
Copyright (c) 2016 Kai Matturi, Chris Pain
‘Value for Whom, by Whom’: Investigating Value Constructs in Non-Profit Project Portfolios
In most non-profit organisations (NPOs), there are multiple programs, projects or initiatives running simultaneously. The management of multiple projects in organisations can be coined as project portfolio management (PPM) (Archer & Ghasemzadeh 1999; Pennypacker & Dye 2002). In any project-based organisation, it is critical that selected projects align with and deliver the organisation’s strategy or mission. Decisions about project funding are strategic decisions, particularly when there are resource limitations. In PPM decision making, the allocation of resources to projects requires a clear judgement of value across multiple perspectives. Value has often been expressed in financial terms, however increasingly research indicates that non-financial considerations are equally important in evaluating value. A key task in project portfolio management is to maximise value across the portfolio. However, value can be a subjective notion, as each person may have different expectations of what is valuable. The involvement of diverse stakeholder interests could create complexities in decision making in non-profit organisations due to value being interpreted in different ways by the stakeholders. Furthermore in order to achieve its purpose, non-profits depend heavily on donors, patrons and sponsors - stakeholders who contribute to the portfolio but are often not the direct recipients of the services provided by the non-profit organisation (Kaplan 2012). Non-profit portfolios often compete with other initiatives for resources and attention from the same donors and sponsors, and may need to constantly justify the value they provide to these stakeholders. Most research about value in PPM has been conducted in the ‘for-profit’ sector. Recent value-based studies in the project portfolio field stress the importance of considering both commercial and non-commercial value in portfolio decision making (Killen, du Plessis & Young 2012; Kopman 2013; Martinsuo & Killen 2014; Thiry 2001, 2002). Non-commercial value includes the ecological, social, and learning dimensions of value (Martinsuo & Killen 2014), whilst commercial value is characterised by financial and economic measures like market value. The research reported in this paper is distinct as it investigates non-commercial value in the non-profit sector. The study extends our knowledge about strategic value and multi-stakeholder management in the non-profit sector. The findings also contribute to the overall understanding of PPM by providing insights about the multi-perspective aspects of value and the management of portfolios in complex environments involving multiple stakeholders. This paper commences with an outline of past and contemporary views about value and discusses how these views might relate to PPM and NPOs. Next, it deliberates the extent to which multi-stakeholder perspectives of value are discussed in the literature. An empirical qualitative research design is used to explore value in project portfolios from the perspectives of multiple stakeholders in two inter-related case NPOs. The paper concludes with a discussion of the findings to highlight several value perspectives drawn from the non-profit sector that have significant theoretical and practical contributions to understanding value typologies that underline stakeholder constructs of value and decision making in project portfolios.
Copyright (c) 2016 Karyne Cheng Siew Ang, Shankar Sankaran, Catherine Patricia Killen
The bright side of social economy sector’s projectification: a study of successful social enterprises
In Europe, we are witnessing a growth in the social economy sector, i.e. in socio – economic organizations, which belong neither to the traditional for profit sector (market economy) nor to the public sector (government) (Deforuny, 2001; Young, 2007) - they rather act at the interface of civil society and markets (Jäger, 2010). The main goal of these organizations, called social enterprises or social business, is doing business for socially useful purposes. These initiatives may take the form of traditional Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), like foundations and associations, as well as new kinds of organizations for example social cooperatives, partnerships, funds. Social economy is situated between public and business sphere of administration and combines both, social objectives and the ones profit-oriented. Social entrepreneurship is unquestionably a desirable feature of social economy understood as reaching planned economic objectives with the use of available resources. Another feature comprises in using involvement and creativity of excluded persons and thus, solving social problems, among others, structural unemployment and disadvantage of social minorities as well as strengthening democratic processes, bottom-up social initiatives etc. Achieving objectives, both social and economic, requires using modern management instruments and methods. All of the above mentioned organizations or ventures, which achieve their local, social or ethical mission and goals using methods adopted from the business sector (Defourny, Hulgard, Pestoff, eds.2014). One of these methods is project management. The whole sector of social economy, both in Poland and in Europe, is strongly influenced by projectification process: a lot of the activities are performed in the form of projects. For last ten years projectification of social non-governmental sector as well as the economy sector in Poland was reinforced by EU’s funding stream – hundreds of co-funded projects, which aimed at increasing the level of development and improving the condition of social economy, were implemented. Some of these projects have resulted in the creation of durable, dynamically operating social enterprises, and some of them did not produce any long-term results. In case of successful projects, we can observe an unusual effect of projectification process: the creation of permanent structures, sustainable social economy organizations through the implementation of projects. Although we can identify examples of interesting research on impact of project work on NGOs (Brière, Proulx, Navaro, & Laporte, 2015); Golini, Kalchschmidt, Landoni, 2015) or critical success factors of non-governmental projects (Khang & Moe, 2008), there is a research gap which we would like to address in this paper: lack of research on project management best practices in social enterprises. Thus, the main research question we would like to investigate in the paper is: What are the factors that lead to creation of durable, permanent social economy enterprises from projects? This paper draws on set of qualitative data from broader research on social economy sector conducted in Poland in years 2011-2013 by researchers from the Institute of Public Affairs (IPA). For the purpose of this paper we have conducted multiple case study analysis and analysed 36 case studies of existing social enterprises. One of our research goals was to find out, which factors are critical in the process of creation durable social enterprises from projects. Also, we wanted to understand how projectification, influenced strongly by the EU policies, changes the landscape of social enterprises in Poland and helps them achieve success.
Copyright (c) 2016 Beata Jalocha, Ewa Bogacz-Wojtanowska
This case study was developed from an actual scenario by Dr. Steve Leybourne of Boston University. The case documents the historical evolution of an organization, and has been used successfully in courses dealing with organizational and cultural change, and the utilization of ‘soft skills’ in project-based management. This is a short case, ideal for classroom use and discussion. The issues are easily accessible to students, and there is a single wide ranging question that allows for the inclusion of many issues surrounding strategic decision-making, and behavioural and cultural change. Alpha was one of the earlier companies in the USA to invest in large, edge-of-town superstores, with plentiful free vehicle parking, selling food and related household products. Alpha was created in the 1950s as a subsidiary of a major publicly quoted retail group. It started business by opening a string of very large discount stores in converted industrial and warehouse premises in the south of the United States. In the early days shoppers were offered a limited range of very competitively priced products. When Alpha went public in 1981 it was the fourth largest food retailer in the US, selling an ever-widening range of food and non-food products. Its success continued to be based on high volume, low margins and good value for money, under the slogan of ‘Alpha Price.’
A Project Portfolio Management model adapted to non-profit organizations
As they strive towards greater professionalism in carrying out their activities, non-profit organizations (NPOs) have begun paying attention to project management. The non-profit sector (NPS) has also begun to adopt strategic planning techniques, thus making the acceptance of project portfolio management (PPM) methodology a natural consequence. This article aims to propose a project portfolio management model adapted to the context of NPOs.
Copyright (c) 2016 Fabrício Martins Lacerda, Cristina Dai Prá Martens, Henrique M R de Freitas
Industrial Megaprojects: Concepts, strategies and practices for success
This is a review of a recent book on Megaprojects written by an experienced practitioner and researcher of megaprojects who has been writing about them over the last three decades. It focuses on industrial megaprojects covering mainly megaprojects in the Oil & Gas Production, Petroleum Processing and Refining, Minerals and Metals, Chemical, LNG, Power Generation and Pipelines. The book is written mainly from the perspective of project owners but contains some good advice to project managers as well.
Sometimes it’s important to simply say the words … as it is in the beginning of wisdom that is the definition of terms. When historians look at the world of project management, what will they say that we have said about climate change? Certainly more general—but absolutely legitimate—terms such as ‘sustainability’ have been used, but in a basic term search in the 3 oldest project management journals, I was surprised to see only a few dozen uses of ‘climate change’ as a specific term. The conversation started a long time ago using those words, and PMRP would like to encourage more with this commentary on one of the central topics of this journal … climate change.
The International Project Management Association (IPMA) was established by academics, research has always been acknowledged by IPMA and the association has supported research in different ways. We see it as our duty to share knowledge in project management, cooperate and facilitate cooperation between project management researchers and motivate project management researchers…and, by investigating specific areas, and thereby influencing the discipline. To achieve this we collaborate with other organisations that share our interest and I am glad to declare that IPMA will be collaborating with the journal Project Management Research and Practice.
Driving Project Delivery from the Top Down: Engaging Executive Leaders as Project Sponsors
The perspective of the Chief Project Officer is a new and valuable role in the project management team. In this first of an ongoing series, Dr. Alicia Aitken will contribute to PMRP with this unique perspective and offer insights to both this emerging role and its impact on project success.
Thoughts on project management and climate change
Addressing the undeniable challenge of climate change within the pages of PMRP is a priority and, starting with the 2017 volume, will become an ongoing focus for submissions. In support of this, the views of Dr. Joel Carboni were recently captured on a variety of topics relevant to both project management researchers and practitioners.
Copyright (c) 2017 Beverly Pasian, Joel Carboni
Project Management Yinyang: Coupling project success and client satisfaction
Our research applies paradox theory to a project management construct to help project management researchers and practitioners understand the tensions that can exist between project success and client satisfaction. Our research highlights that although project success and client satisfaction are both present within a project management construct, they also belong to different functional systems. Project success and client satisfaction have different systemic-discourses and use different language games to convey information. These distinctions can create latent and sometimes salient tensions within the project management construct that project managers must understand, embrace, and work with. We have used a Grounded Theory (GT) methodology to explore the lived experience of project managers, and from this have identified a phenomenon which we have termed project management yinyang. Project management yinyang is the state that exists when both project success and Client satisfaction are tightly coupled within the project management construct. Project management yinyang highlights that these two phenomena cannot be viewed as separate elements because the ‘seed’ of each exists within the other. And to truly achieve one, you must also achieve the other. Our findings indicate that in order to create project management yinyang the project manager must embrace a paradoxical yet holistic philosophy. They must understand the complementarity, interdependency, and structural coupling that exists between the positivist and interpretivist paradigms within the project management construct. They must understand how satisfaction (Yin) and success (Yang) are created through focus. Furthermore, they must understand how project management yinyang is separate from, but borne from, the convergence of the other two elements.
Project Management and sustainability - review of the 4th IPMA Research Conference 2016
The 4th IPMA research conference was held on Project Management and Sustainability in Reykjavik, Iceland from September 14th - 16th 2016. In this article, we give a general outline of the structure of the conference, the main findings and what they mean for the project management community.
Conference Proceedings (Reviews determined per event)
Copyright (c) 2017 Helgi Thor Ingason, Yvonne Schoper
Is the Flipped Classroom Method Useful for Teaching Project Management?
A teaching method known as the flipped classroom has become increasingly popular in recent years and the method is now widely used around the world at all levels of the education system. This paper seeks to examine and elucidate the concept of the flipped classroom method as well as scrutinize its varying manifestations within educational settings, focusing particularly on the question of whether the teaching method is a fruitful teaching strategy for project management. Data gathering was based on an analysis of research literature focusing on the application of the flipped classroom as well as interviews conducted with both teachers and students associated with a master’s degree program in project management at Reykjavik University. The interviews sought to extract perspectives of both teachers and students with regard to their experiences of the flipped classroom method in contrast to conventional teaching methods. Finally, the paper will present the findings from an analysis comparing test results from an international certification examination in project management for two groups of students. One group attended lessons where the flipped classroom method was applied whereas the other group was instructed using traditional teaching methods. The findings of the study reveal that the flipped classroom method is a fruitful and relevant strategy for teaching and learning project management. The findings show that the students were more positive toward the method than the teachers. Furthermore, the students were generally more receptive to new teaching methods than the teachers were. 60% of the students who attended lessons that used the flipped classroom claimed that it had aided them in preparing for the certification examination.
Copyright (c) 2018 Helgi Thor Ingason, Gisli Runar Gudmundsson
The Story of a Village: A Case Study in Strategic Planning at Enyinndakurom, Ankaful, Central Region, Ghana
The development of a strategic plan for an African village can seem a daunting task, especially if the village is one created from diverse beginnings and different cultural origins, where ethnicity, language and custom are not homogenous. In this article the authors explore the outcomes of the traditional top down approach. They contrast this with a collaborative approach, bottom up, and propose the use of management strategies more commonly found in an industrial environment. Deploying a case study approach the development and implementation of a strategic plan for a post-leprosy rehabilitation village near Elmina in Ghana, West Africa is described and evaluated. Learned helplessness is often an outcome of intervention aid. By approaching a project with a top down approach, the dependency of a community can become ingrained. However a partnership approach with the villagers is hoped to engender a sense of ownership in the community, motivating optimism. The authors believe that the possibility of engagement with the village is greatly strengthened using collaborative approach, and that this is key to a successful outcome. The concept, strategy and initial results as well as the ongoing sustainability of the strategy are described. The underlying hypothesis is that by empowering an impoverished and disenfranchised community with tried and trusted, modern management methods, engagement as well as success can be achieved.
Loose, fragmented project arrangements – Some implications for practitioners
This paper aims to contribute to our understanding of the project by considering an alternative type of project taken from the world of practice but which appears to be over-looked within much of the existing PM research. The paper draws from two recent project experiences and describes a project reality as messy, ambiguous and fragmented. How this messiness affect the project structure and the implications in terms of how we manage projects are drawn out and discussed.
The United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) framework was adopted by every member state of the United Nations in 2015, and, albeit not legally binding, it is arguably one of the greatest steps of humanity to address the identified problems of our time, covering a wide range of topics such as environmental protection, equal opportunities, education, eradication of diseases, famine, poverty, slavery and child labour. Both in terms of its comprehensive scope and its worldwide support, this framework arguably represents one of the most significant international frameworks in human history. Using education related examples from a charity project that is concerned with the development of a local health care system in the African rain forest in Cameroon, this paper illustrates how projects can and should implement key aspects of the SDGs framework pre-emptively within their scope, i.e. at the local level, prior to and in support of the full, legally binding implementation of the framework at the national level. This not only helps to make our world a better place, but also very concretely to reduce project risks, create funding opportunities and make the project’s deliverables more sustainable. The ‘Mahola Project’ (‘Mahola’ means ‘Aid’ in the local Bassa language) was founded in 2013 – following an exploration trip to Cameroon in order to assess the real needs of the population in the deprived area around the village Siliyegue – as a response to meet these needs. The main objective of the project is the development and deployment of a sustainable, integrated, local health care system that is fully aligned with the SDGs and brings about dramatic improvements for the quality of life of the people living there; far beyond ‘just’ providing health care and work opportunities. Education is at the core of the necessary efforts to successfully deliver this system, changing minds and hearts.
Copyright (c) 2018 Ian Brooks, Mario Kossmann, Virginie Kossmann
Project Management Performance Assessment in the Non-Profit Sector
As the non-profit sector becomes increasingly dependent on projects to achieve its strategic goals, the use of formal project management processes can help to demonstrate to stakeholders that an organisation is taking steps to improve its performance. However the adoption of processes drawn from the for-profit sector does not always yield the desired results. In particular existing performance management systems and quality management systems are unsuitable for the implementation, measurement, and improvement of project management practices in the sector. A new model is therefore proposed for non-profit project management performance assessment. This is based on a conceptual analysis of the European Foundation for Quality Management (EFQM) business excellence model, a project management performance assessment model used primarily in for-profit environments, and an assessment of criteria particular to non-profit organisations. The model is multi-dimensional, flexible, and accounts for multiple stakeholder views. After using it, non-profit organisations can reflect on their performance, create an improvement plan, and use the model again to test their progress.
Copyright (c) 2018 Katherine Anderson, John Lannon
Implementation of evidence based practice in a development project on nurse students’ clinical education
Synopsis: The evidence based practice (EBP) movement started at the beginning of 1970s in the field of medicine. The famous definition by Sackett et al. (1997, p. 2) defined evidence-based medicine as ‘the conscientious, explicit and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients’. The idea of EBP was later introduced to other fields of professional practice in health and social care, as well as to the education of health professionals such as nursing education. The project named Knowledge in development (KID) focused on the development of clinical preceptorship in the context of nursing. Clinical preceptors are registered nurses and practical nurses who have the responsibilities of caring for patients and teaching nursing students at the same time. Nursing teachers working in the KID project were enthusiastic to implement the evidence based practice approach in the project work, by using different evidence bases. Purpose: The purpose of this article is to present how evidence based practices in the project work were implemented and to describe the experiences of the project group members about the implementation of EBP. Project setting: Two universities of applied sciences, two vocational institutes and four health-care organizations in Western Finland. Year of project: 2009-2013 Target readers: Primarily project practitioners, project managers and teachers on the health care sector. Lessons learned: Based on the experiences gained in this project, the use of an evidence based practice approach in planning and implementing a development project in health care clinical and educational settings is recommended. Competencies highlighted: Information literacy Related theory: The structure of different evidence bases presented by Rycroft-Malone et al. (2004), including research, clinical experience, patients, clients and carers, and local context and environment.
The First World Trade Center Project: A Historical Tribute to a Great Mega Project
The tragic collapse of the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001 could not erase the memory of one of the most successful projects in history. The project set standards of excellence in project management for years to come. Using a retrospective look at the construction management of the WTC during the 1960s and 1970s, we show how the vision of great leadership and a determined organization transformed the economy of one of the most important cities in the world.
Copyright (c) 2019 Vered Holzmann, Donald Olson, Randall Vendetti, Aaron Shenhar
The client-side project manager: A practitioner of Design
SYNOPSIS Our research adds to the client-side project management body of literature by demonstrating that these professionals display all the characteristics of Design Thinking Mentalities, Thinking Styles and Practices as identified by Hassi and Laakso (2011a) and that they utilize a broad range of the Design Thinking tools identified by Liedtka (2015) and Johansson-Sköldberg et al. (2013) when they deliver construction projects. RELEVANCE FOR PRACTICE/EDUCATION Our findings indicate that client-side project managers should view their role differently to what has been traditionally accepted. The use of Design Thinking within the project management construct highlights that practitioners need to develop skills and tools that address, not just the compliance and control elements of project management, but also information gathering and problem solving techniques. This change of perspective creates opportunities for project managers to broaden their skill set in order to be able create further value in the Construction process. RESEARCH DESIGN Our research uses a Grounded Theory methodology to explore the ‘lived experience’ of client-side project managers to determine if they utilize Design Thinking when managing Construction projects. This is achieved by creating a framework from the work of Hassi and Laakso (2011a), Johansson-Sköldberg et al. (2013) and Liedtka (2015) to guide semi-structured interviews with a cohort of ten client-side project managers. MAIN FINDINGS Our research provides evidence of Design Thinking Mentalities, Thinking Styles, Practices and Tools being utilized by client-side project managers when delivering Construction projects. Our findings also identifies 15 project management tools used by client-side project managers when delivering Construction projects and highlight that the practice of client-side project management should not be viewed exclusively as part of the ‘Implementation’ process. RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS Our results support existing research on client-side project management and expand the Project Management body of literature by demonstrating how client-side project managers employ Design Thinking to handle poorly-defined projects.
Copyright (c) 2018 Greg Stewart Usher, S. Jonathon Whitty